What is included in Assessment?

• Change controls and Deviations
• Original qualification documentation
• SOP (Stand Operating Procedures)
• P&ID’s Walk down 
• Maintenance records in Computer Maintenance Management System (CMMS) software

Change Controls and Deviations Review: Keywords related to the system play a crucial role in searching the records in Quality Management Software for both Change Controls and Deviations. Records might be missed if proper search is not conducted.

Original qualification documentation: Initial qualification documentation should be reviewed for the required assessment duration to find the gaps and to reflect the company’s current policies and procedures.

SOP (Standard Operating Procedures): SOP’s related to the system operation and maintenance must be reviewed and confirmed with the System Owner to ensure that the procedures are current and whatever changes are made to SOP’s during the review period are done under appropriate change control procedures.

P&ID’s Walk down: Walking down the system P&ID’s are an important part of the periodic assessment as this confirms whether the P&ID is reflecting the current state of the system or not. 

Maintenance Records Review: Annual Workplans, Calibration records, Validation events, General Work Orders and Preventative Maintenance plans to be reviewed as a part of periodic assessments to ensure that the system is being calibrated, maintained and functioning properly.

 

 
Though the procedures are efficient in Pharmaceutical and Biopharmaceutical manufacturing industries, there are chances that some of the changes could be missed or not tracked in the Change Controls. Also, as the use of Single-Use technology is growing, chances of switching the equipment/instrumentation by the personnel without any proper change control is very likely since they are portable and doing so will save time. 

Performing all the activities listed above during the periodic assessment helps to identify the gaps and rectify the same which in turn ensures that the Product Quality and Patient Safety are consistent.

System Safety is the application of engineering and management principles, criteria, and techniques to optimize all aspects of safety within the constraints of operational effectiveness, time, and cost throughout all phases of the system life cycle. It is a planned, disciplined and systematic approach to preventing or reducing accidents throughout the lifecycle of a system

Primary concern is the management of risks through:

• Risk identification, evaluation, elimination & control through analysis, design & management

History of system safety

Design Safety arose in the 1950s after dissatisfaction with the fly-fix-fly approach to safety. Design Safety was first adopted by the US Air Force. It led to the development of mil-std-882 Standard Practice for System Safety (v1 1960s). The basic concept of System was rather than assigning a safety engineer to demonstrate that a design is safe, safety considerations were to be integrated from the design phase of the project.

Founding principles

Safety should be designed in

• Critical reviews of the system design identify hazards that can be controlled by modifying the design
• Modifications are most readily accepted during the early stages of design, development, and test
• Previous design deficiencies can be corrected to prevent their recurrence

Inherent safety requires both engineering and management techniques to control the hazards of a system

• A safety program must be planned and implemented such that safety analyses are integrated with other factors that impact management decisions

Safety requirements must be consistent with other program or design requirements

• The evolution of a system design is a series of tradeoffs among competing disciplines to optimize relative contributions
• Safety competes with other disciplines; it does not override them

The main principles of Safe design are:

• Inherent safety
• Safety factors
• Multiple independent safety barriers

Inherently safe design 

Inherent: belonging to the very nature of the person/thing (inseparable). It is recommended that Inherent safe design should be the first step in safety engineering. Change the process to eliminate hazards, rather than accepting the hazards and developing add-on features to control them, unlike engineered features, inherent safety cannot be compromised.

Minimize inherent dangers as far as possible by considering the following:

• Potential hazards are excluded rather than just enclosed or managed
• Replace dangerous substances or reactions by less dangerous ones (instead of encapsulating the process)
• Use fireproof materials instead of flammable ones (better than using flammable materials but keeping temperatures low)
• Perform reactions at low temperatures & pressures instead of building resistant vessels

Safety Factors

Factors of safety (FoS), also known as safety factor (SF), is a term describing the load carrying capacity of a system beyond the expected or actual loads. Essentially, the factor of safety is how much stronger the system is than it usually needs to be for an intended load. Safety factors are often calculated using detailed analysis because comprehensive testing is impractical on many projects, such as bridges and buildings, but the structure’s ability to carry load must be determined to a reasonable accuracy.

When the material used is under strength, factor of safety covers uncertainties in material strength. It covers poor workmanship. It also covers unexpected behavior of the structure and natural disasters. Stresses are produced which may be very high. Factor of safety may take care of these loads during construction. Presence of residual stresses and stress concentrations beyond the level theoretically expected.

Multiple Independent Safety Barriers

Safety barriers are arranged in chains. The aim is to make each barrier independent of its predecessors so that if the first fails, then the second is still intact, etc. Typically, the first barriers are measures to prevent an accident, after which follow barriers that limit the consequences of an accident, and, finally, rescue services as the last resort.

The basic idea behind multiple barriers is that even if the first barrier is well constructed, it may fail, due to unforeseen reason, and that the second barrier should then provide protection. The major problem in the construction of safety barriers is how to make them as independent of each other as possible. If two or more barriers are sensitive to the same type of impact, then one and the same destructive force can get rid of all of them in one swoop.

These three principles of engineering safety – inherent safety, safety factors, and multiple barriers are quite different in nature, but they have one important trait in common. They all aim at protecting us not only against risks that can be assigned meaningful probability estimates, but also against dangers that cannot be probabilized, such as the possibility that some unforeseen even triggers a hazard that is seemingly under control. It remains, however, to investigate more in detail the principles underlying safety engineering and, not least, to clarify how they relate to other principles of engineering design.

Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium

The starting point upon which all column design is based is to accurately determine the relative volatility of the key components to be separated. Using a mass and energy balance simulation program. The user must set up the basis of the simulation by selecting an appropriate fluid package and the components present in the feed. Activity coefficients, estimated by the program or provided by the user, are used to relate non-ideal component interactions.

Column Operating Objectives

The first step in column design is specifying the column operating objectives. These are defined by a primary product composition and an optimal recovery of the product from the waste, recycle or less important by-product stream. These specifications should be in terms of the heavy key impurity in the top stream and the light key impurity in the bottom stream.

Operating Pressure

Once the top and bottom stream compositions are specified, the dew point of the top stream and the boiling point of the bottom stream may be determined at various pressures. An operating pressure should be selected that allows acceptable temperature differences between available utilities because the overhead vapor must be condensed and the bottom liquid reboiled.

When possible, atmospheric or pressure operation of the column is preferred in order to avoid requiring a vacuum system. However, another consideration is component heat sensitivity, which may require lower pressure operation to avoid fouling, product discoloration or decomposition. Often the relative volatility is also improved at lower pressures.

R/Dmin & Nmin and Feed Stage Estimation

Using the simulation program, shortcut procedures based upon total reflux operation allow the minimum reflux ratio (R/Dmin) and minimum number of ideal separation stages (Nmin) to be determined. Using an actual reflux ratio of 1.2 times the minimum reflux ratio will allow an optimal number of stages to be estimated as well as an appropriate feed stage.

Rigorous simulation of the distillation at a given feed rate and composition may now be accomplished by specifying the following: top and bottom product compositions, number of stages, feed stage, and top and bottom pressure.

Parametric cases of this simulation should be used to verify the estimated number of stages and feed location. Add and subtract stages from both the stripping and rectifying section of the column. Do this until the required reflux ratio becomes approximately 1.2 times the minimum reflux ratio, or the trade off between utility usage and the number of stages appears optimal for the specific column. As more total stages are used, the required reboiler duty will decrease until there are diminishing returns.

Diameter and Height of the Column

At this point, the distillation process is well defined, leaving the column diameter and height to be determined. The chosen design case from the simulation program provides the internal liquid and vapor flows and their physical properties for every stage of the column. The column diameter is chosen to provide an acceptable superficial vapor velocity, or “Fs factor”. This is defined as vapor velocity (ft/sec) times square root of vapor density (lb/ft3), and liquid loading defined as volumetric flow rate (gal/min), divided by the cross sectional area of the column (ft2). The column internals can be chosen as either trays or packing. Trayed columns must avoid flooding, weeping and downcomer backup. Packed columns must avoid flooding, minimum surface wetting and mal-distribution.

Project managers should understand and determine these five key design elements for the projects success. Cost, chemical interactions and equipment needs change in a non-linear fashion, as increased output is required. Qualified engineers should consider these critical steps for distillation column design.

Tap water often contains impurities that can cause problems. These may include phosphates, nitrates, chlorine, and various heavy metals. Excessive phosphate and nitrate levels can cause an algae bloom. Copper is often present in tap water due to leaching from pipes and is highly toxic to invertebrates. An RO/DI filter removes practically all of these impurities.

There are typically four stages in a RO/DI filter:

• Sediment filter
• Carbon block
• Reverse osmosis membrane
• Deionization resin

If there are less than four stages, something was left out. If there are more, something was duplicated.

The sediment filter, typically a foam block, removes particles from the water. Its purpose is to prevent clogging of the carbon block and RO membrane. Good sediment filters will remove particles down to one micron or smaller.

The carbon, typically a block of powdered activated carbon, filters out smaller particles, adsorbs some dissolved compounds, and deactivates chlorine. The latter is the most important part: free chlorine in the water will destroy the RO membrane.

The RO membrane is a semi-permeable thin film. Water under pressure is forced through it. Molecules larger/heavier than water (which is very small/light) penetrate the membrane less easily and tend to be left behind.

The DI resin exchanges the remaining ions, removing them from the solution.

There are three types of RO membrane on the market:

• Cellulose Triacetate (CTA)
• Thin Film Composite (TFC)
• Poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

The difference between the three concerns how they are affected by chlorine: CTA membranes require chlorine in the water to prevent them from rotting. TFC membranes are damaged by chlorine and must be protected from it. PVC membranes are impervious to both chlorine and bacteria.

Reverse osmosis typically removes 90-98% of all the impurities of significance to the aquarist. If that is good enough for your needs, then you don’t need the DI stage. The use of RO by itself is certainly better than plain tap water and, in many cases, is perfectly adequate.

RO by itself might not be adequate if your tap water contains something that you want to reduce by more than 90-98%.

A DI stage by itself, without the other filter stages, will produce water that is pretty much free of dissolved solids. However, DI resin is fairly expensive and will last only about 1/20th as long when used without additional filtration. If you’re only going to buy either a RO or a DI, it would be best to choose the RO, unless you only need small amounts of purified water.

Duplicating stages can extend their life and improve their efficiency. For example, if you have two DI stages in series, one can be replaced when it’s exhausted without producing any impure water. If you have both a 5-micron sediment filter and a 1-micron filter, they will take longer to clog up. If there are two carbon stages, there will be less chlorine attacking the TFC membrane. Whether the extra stages are worth the extra money is largely a matter of circumstance and opinion.

RO/DI capacities are measured in gallons per day (GPD), and typically fall within the 25-100 GPD range. The main difference between these units is the size of the RO membrane. Other differences are (a) the flow restrictor that determines how much waste water is produced, (b) the water gets less contact time in the carbon and DI stages in high-GPD units than low-GPD units, and (c) units larger than 35 GPD typically have welded-together membranes.

As a result of the membrane welding and the reduced carbon contact time, RO membranes larger than 35 GPD produce water that is slightly less pure. This primarily affects the life of the DI resin.

Most aquarists won’t use more than 25 GPD averaged over time. If you have a decent size storage container, that size should be adequate. A higher GPD rating comes in handy, however, when filling a large tank for the first time or in emergencies when you need a lot of water in a hurry.

The advertised GPD values assume ideal conditions, notably optimum water pressure and temperature. The purity of your tap water also affects it. In other words, your mileage will vary.

An RO filter has two outputs: purified water and wastewater. A well-designed unit will have about 4X as much wastewater as purified water. The idea is that the impurities that don’t go through the membrane get flushed out with the wastewater.

There is nothing particularly wrong with the wastewater except for a slightly elevated dissolved solid content. It may actually be cleaner than your tap water because of the sediment and carbon filters. Feel free to water your plants with it.

Cleanroom Overview

Cleanrooms are used in practically every industry where small particles can adversely affect the manufacturing process. They vary in size and complexity, and are used extensively in industries such as semiconductor manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, biotech, medical device and life sciences, as well as critical process manufacturing common in aerospace, optics, military and Department of Energy.

A cleanroom is any given contained space where provisions are made to reduce particulate contamination and control other environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity and pressure. The key component is the High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filter that is used to trap particles that are 0.3 micron and larger in size. All of the air delivered to a cleanroom passes through HEPA filters, and in some cases where stringent cleanliness performance is necessary; Ultra Low Particulate Air (ULPA) filters are used.

Personnel selected to work in cleanrooms undergo extensive training in contamination control theory. They enter and exit the cleanroom through airlocks, air showers and/or gowning rooms, and they must wear special clothing designed to trap contaminants that are naturally generated by skin and the body.

Depending on the room classification or function, personnel gowning may be as limited as lab coats and hairnets, or as extensive as fully enveloped in multiple layered bunny suits with self-contained breathing apparatus.
Cleanroom clothing is used to prevent substances from being released off the wearer’s body and contaminating the environment. The cleanroom clothing itself must not release particles or fibers to prevent contamination of the environment by personnel. This type of personnel contamination can degrade product performance in the semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries and it can cause cross-infection between medical staff and patients in the healthcare industry for example.

Cleanroom garments include boots, shoes, aprons, beard covers, bouffant caps, coveralls, face masks, frocks/lab coats, gowns, glove and finger cots, hairnets, hoods, sleeves and shoe covers. The type of cleanroom garments used should reflect the cleanroom and product specifications. Low-level cleanrooms may only require special shoes having completely smooth soles that do not track in dust or dirt. However, shoe bottoms must not create slipping hazards since safety always takes precedence. A cleanroom suit is usually required for entering a cleanroom. Class 10,000 cleanrooms may use simple smocks, head covers, and booties. For Class 10 cleanrooms, careful gown wearing procedures with a zipped cover all, boots, gloves and complete respirator enclosure are required.

Cleanroom Air Flow Principles

Cleanrooms maintain particulate-free air through the use of either HEPA or ULPA filters employing laminar or turbulent air flow principles. Laminar, or unidirectional, air flow systems direct filtered air downward in a constant stream. Laminar air flow systems are typically employed across 100% of the ceiling to maintain constant, unidirectional flow. Laminar flow criteria is generally stated in portable work stations (LF hoods), and is mandated in ISO-1 through ISO-4 classified cleanrooms.

Proper cleanroom design encompasses the entire air distribution system, including provisions for adequate, downstream air returns. In vertical flow rooms, this means the use of low wall air returns around the perimeter of the zone. In horizontal flow applications, it requires the use of air returns at the downstream boundary of the process. The use of ceiling mounted air returns is contradictory to proper cleanroom system design.

The fundamental computational tool is the Problem Table algorithm. This tool allows the identifications of the Pinch, as well as of targets for hot and cold utilities.

The net heat flow across Pinch is zero. Consequently, the system can be split into two stand-alone subsystems, above and below the Pinch. Above the Pinch there is need only for hot utility, while below the Pinch only cold utility is necessary. For given ΔTmin the hot and cold utility consumption identified so far becomes Minimum Energy Requirements (MER). No design can achieve MER if there is a cross-pinch heat transfer.

The partition of the original problem in subsystems may introduce redundancy in the number of heat exchangers. When the capital cost is high, it might be necessary to remove the Pinch constraint in order to reduce the number of units. The operation will be paid by supplementary energetic consumption, which has to be optimized against the reduction in capital costs.

The result is that heat recovery problem becomes an optimization of both energy and capital costs, constraint by a minimum temperature approach in designing the heat exchangers. Stream selection and data extraction are essential in Pinch Analysis for effective heat integration.

The key computational assumption in Pinch Point Analysis is constant CP on the interval where the streams are matched. If not, stream segmentation is necessary

The counter-current heat flow of the streams selected for integration may be represented by means of Composite Curves (CC). Another diagram, Grand Composite Curve (GCC) allows the visualization of the excess heat between hot and cold streams against temperature intervals. This feature helps the selection and placement of utilities, as well as the identification of the potential process/process matches.

The synthesis of a Heat Exchanger Network consists of three main activities:

• Set a reference basis for energy integration, namely:

-Minimum Energy Requirements (MER)

-Utility selection and their placement

-Number of units and heat exchange area

-Cost of energy and hardware at MER

• Synthesis of heat exchanger network (HEN) for minimum energy requirements and maximum heat recovery. Determine matches in subsystems and generate alternatives.
• Network optimization. Reduce redundant elements, as small heat exchangers, or small split streams. Find the trade-off between utility consumption, heat exchange area and number of units. Consider constraints

The improvement of design can be realized by Appropriate Placement and Plus/Minus principle. Appropriate Placement defines the optimal location of individual units against the Pinch. It applies to heat engines, heat pumps, distillation columns, evaporators, furnaces, and to any other unit operation that can be represented in terms of heat sources and sinks.

The Plus/Minus principle helps to detect major flow sheet modifications that can improve significantly the energy recovery. Navigating between Appropriate Placement, Plus/Minus Principle and Targeting allows the designer to formulate near-optimum targets for the heat exchanger network, without ever sizing heat exchangers.

Pinch Point principle has been extended to operations involving mass exchange. Saving water can be treated systematically by Water Pinch methodology. Similarly, Hydrogen Pinch can efficiently handle the inventory of hydrogen in refineries. Other applications of industrial interest have been developed in the field of waste and emissions minimization. The systematic methods in handling the integration of mass-exchange operations are still in development. In this area the methods based on optimization techniques are very promising.

Regardless of whether or not you are runninga manufacturing facility, a laboratory, or any other kind of operation that takes advantage of closed systems, you’re going to want to be certain that your operation is perfectly clean and completely sterilized on a regular basis.

This is especially true of those in the beverage, food, or pharmaceutical industry, where taking advantage of the best Clean in Place/Sterilization in Place services are absolutely mission critical to providing consistent and reliable results that pass industry specifications and requirements.

In an effort to help you better choose the right CIP/SIP professionals to deliver you the kind of results you’re counting on, here are just a handful of things you’ll want to think about before you contract any services at all.

Make certain that you’re always working with qualified professionals

The very first thing that you need to make sure you are doing when you are working with these kinds of professionals is that they are exactly that – professionals.

There are quite a few generalized cleaning operations out there that possess some of the tools and technology necessary to provide CIP/SIP results but not the experience, the specialized knowledge, or the wisdom to deploy these solutions appropriately in all circumstances.

No, instead, you’re only going to want to work with those that have the necessary qualifications, the necessary certifications, and the kind of experience – usually years of experience – that give you the confidence to know that the jobs going to get done the right way the first time around.

This is especially important when you are in an industry where contamination in a closed system can have dramatic and drastic consequences.

Only take advantage of services designed for your setup and your technology

Secondly, you’re going to want to be 100% certain that the CIP /SIP you have decided to work with are experienced in delivering the kind of clean in place and sterilization in place results you’re looking for with your particular technology setup.

Though almost every industrial setup is going to be unique in itself, the truth is most solutions have some kind of aseptic production technology, technology that needs to be cleaned without any exposure to outside contaminants whatsoever.

If you’re producing sterile products that must be packaged in sterile containers, CIP/SIP services are an absolute must!

The best CIP /SIP professionals are going to use isolators that make sure no air or oxygen makes it into a closed system, removing all potential for contamination almost entirely. Steam, hydrogen peroxide, and a handful of other specialized solutions may be deployed depending upon the kind of cleaning that you’re looking for and the manufacturing technology you’re using in your closed system.

Review the CIP/SIP experts you’ve worked with

Lastly, you’ll want to make sure that you can find at least a handful of appropriate outlets that give you the chance to review the CIP /SIP that you have chosen to work with.

This “inside information” straight from the mouths of people that have actually worked with CIP /SIP contractors and services will help business owners, management, and leadership choose the right experts going forward, and you’ll be contributing immensely to your industry and every other that needs to leverage these services later down the line.

Be honest and straightforward in your reviews so that people know exactly who to choose to work with moving forward.

Execute an Exposure Assessment

The first step in creating a safety plan for any project is an exposure assessment. This will involve examining in detail the work you are planning to perform and anticipating what risks this work could involve. The potential exposures will be different according to specific project that you are undertaking, therefore it is highly important that you really do analyse the project at hand and refrain from using a pre-existing plan from a similar project. Assuming that the risk will be the safe is a sure fire way to end up in trouble.

Determine Necessary Policies and Controls

Once you have identifies the potential exposures that are related to the project, you will need to do determine what controls are necessary in order for the work to be performed. For example, you may need to include policies that relate to personal protective equipment. There may also be controls needed in regard to electrical safety as well as potential health exposures.

Use a Project-Focused Approach

Each project is different and therefore the safety plan should be different for each project. You may well have a template that you can work from, but it is important to tailor this to the project at hand. This includes changing terminology and eliminating anything that isn’t directly related to the current project. Remember, everything you specify you will do on paper, you will have to do for real so make sure you aren’t including unnecessary tasks and potentially overlooking things that are more important.

Provide Training and Orientation

The program you create that is specific to your site should include training and enforcement as well as roles and responsibilities. This means that you need to make sure that everyone involved has a full understanding of the plan from the bottom to the top including the areas that do not directly related to their role. Every new employee needs to have a project safety orientation, including subcontractors and other temporary staff.

Utility optimization not only consists of handling resources in a smart manner, but also optimizing the path or manner in which they are handled. Adjusting the placement of machines as well as defining the flow of resources throughout the shop floor is also an integral part of the utility optimization process. An efficient flow ensures an efficient execution of process and minimum wastage of time and resources. This is usually done through the use of process flow charts do determine process steps as well as Pareto charts to determine the importance of every resource in terms of its usage and need in every process.

In order to execute resource optimization and make sure that it is continuously being carried out, energy audits and water audits can be done which track the energy needs of an organization and track the water consumption by the organization respectively. The audits not only provide feedback about the status of optimization within the organization, but also help in tracking the development in this area and accordingly set targets. Even though these audits are a bit time consuming but they are highly necessary as they help the organization stay aligned with their set targets.

Optimization of resource usage not only decreases the amount of waste generated, but also leads to greater profits and creates opportunities for recycling and reusing the wasted resources. In a lot of cases, resource optimization leads to a reduction in carbon footprint which is vital due to the currently degrading environmental conditions. Since India agreed to ratify the second commitment period (2013-2020) of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol for the reduction of Greenhouse Gases and thus reduce the carbon footprint, the need for cutting emissions and correspondingly minimizing waste through resource optimization has gained more importance. The rising trend of green technologies has facilitated in optimization as well as cutting down on energy usage and reducing emissions.

The whole world is currently progressing at an unbelievable rate and the environment is getting affected due to that very progress Resource optimization, hence, has become necessary not only for generating greater profits and minimizing wastage of resources, but also for sustainability.  “Recycle and Reuse” has become the motto for every major organization and new ways to optimize resource usage are constantly being researched and put into use. Since the progression of technology is inevitable, there will always be a great need for effective resource optimization processes which contribute to both- organization’s profits as well as sustainability.

• Conceptual and Techno-Economic Feasibility Studies
• FEED & Basic Engineering
• Pre-bid / Proposal Engineering
• Preparation of Process Packages
• Technology and Process Licensor Selection
• Detailed Design & Engineering
• Procurement & Construction Support
• Field Engineering
• De-bottlenecking studies and Trouble Shooting
• Laser Scanning and 3D modeling
• As-Built documentation
• Decommissioning Studies

A company involved in process management & plant engineering carries out all the above activities. All the phases have to be carefully managed starting from Engineering Execution Strategy the FEED and defining the project baseline standards by establishing the codes to and procedures to be able to set Engineering Audit.

A plant design & engineering company has to maximize energy output and reduce LCOE. Since every project is different, Project specific factors such as the local irradiance, weather, soil, wind, and topography must be taken into account for the design, layout, technology selection, and system configuration.

By utilizing the plant design & engineering company’s industrial applications, facility owners will be able to more efficiently implement and execute the challenging plant design management processes.
Why Panorama as your plant design & engineering firm?

Panorama’s Plant Engineering team includes highly experienced engineers in the design and maintenance of industrial processing plants.

Our primary customer groups are those who are in the business of processing, refining, handling, manufacturing or treating petrochemicals, gases, water, waste, bulk materials, minerals, food products or manufactured products for use in other processes or for sale to others.

If you are looking to either expand your business, increase production, reduce bottlenecks, manufacture new products, improve efficiency, upgrade to new technologies, refurbish or repair – Panorama’s offering ranges from machine engineering and finite element analysis to fully integrated, multi-discipline industrial plant design.
Panorama utilises the latest 3D modelling software for each phase of project design development, from conceptual to definitive design, right through to the production of documentation for construction.

Panorama also customizes our delivery to suit the industrial plant company’s project development strategy – becoming accustomed to roles in a wide range of contractual relationships including: due diligence, design consultancy, independent inspection, EPCM, EPC, D&C, owner’s engineer, and strategic alliances.

Read more on what are the steps involved in Industrial Plant Design